Kyoto School

The Kyoto School is a term used to describe a group of Japanese philosophers who developed original and influential ideas by combining Eastern and Western sources of thought. They were mainly active in the first half of the 20th century and centered around Kyoto University. Their main founder was Kitarō Nishida, who introduced the concept of absolute nothingness as a way of understanding reality beyond the categories of Western logic. The Kyoto School philosophers also engaged with various aspects of culture, religion, ethics, and politics, sometimes with controversial consequences. In this article, I will explore the main features of their philosophy, their historical context, and their relevance for cross-cultural dialogue today.

History
The Kyoto School is a term used to describe a group of Japanese philosophers who developed original and influential ideas by combining Eastern and Western sources of thought. They were mainly active in the first half of the 20th century and centered around Kyoto University. Their main founder was Kitarō Nishida, who introduced the concept of absolute nothingness as a way of understanding reality beyond the categories of Western logic. The Kyoto School philosophers also engaged with various aspects of culture, religion, ethics, and politics, sometimes with controversial consequences. In this essay, I will explore the main features of their philosophy, their historical context, and their relevance for cross-cultural dialogue today.

The Kyoto School emerged in the early 20th century, when Japan was undergoing rapid modernization and opening up to the rest of the world. The Meiji Restoration (1868-1912) had ended the feudal system and established a constitutional monarchy. Japan had also embarked on a process of industrialization, militarization, and imperialism, which led to its involvement in several wars and conflicts with China, Russia, and other countries. The Japanese intellectuals of this period faced the challenge of adapting to the new social and political realities, as well as to the influx of Western ideas and values. They also sought to preserve and revitalize their own cultural and spiritual traditions, especially those of Buddhism, Shintoism, and Confucianism.

One of the most prominent figures in this intellectual milieu was Nishida Kitarō (1870-1945), who is widely regarded as the founder of the Kyoto School. Nishida was born in a rural village in Ishikawa Prefecture and became interested in philosophy at an early age. He studied at Tokyo Imperial University, where he was exposed to various Western philosophical systems, such as German idealism, British empiricism, and French positivism. He also practiced Zen Buddhism under a master named Setsumon. Nishida tried to integrate his philosophical and religious insights into a coherent system that could address the fundamental questions of human existence and reality.

Nishida's first major work was An Inquiry into the Good (1911), in which he proposed that the ultimate reality is pure experience or pure consciousness, which he called "pure nothingness". He argued that pure nothingness is not a negation or an absence of being, but rather a dynamic and creative source of all phenomena. He also claimed that pure nothingness is identical with absolute good or absolute value, which is the goal of human life. Nishida developed his idea of pure nothingness further in his later works, such as Intuition and Reflection in Self-Consciousness (1917), From the Acting to the Seeing (1927), and The Logic of Place and the Religious Worldview (1945). He used various metaphors and concepts to describe pure nothingness, such as "the place of nothingness", "the logic of basho", "the self-identity of absolute contradiction", and "the self-aware determination of reality". He also tried to apply his philosophy to various fields of inquiry, such as ethics, aesthetics, religion, history, culture, and politics.

Nishida's philosophy attracted many followers and critics among his contemporaries and successors. Some of them were his colleagues or students at Kyoto University or nearby affiliated schools. They formed a loose network of thinkers who shared some common assumptions and interests, but also had different perspectives and approaches. They are collectively known as the Kyoto School, although they did not form a unified or homogeneous school of thought. Some of the most prominent members of the Kyoto School were Tanabe Hajime (1885-1962), Kuki Shūzō (1888-1941), Watsuji Tetsurō (1889-1960), Miki Kiyoshi (1897-1945), Nishitani Keiji (1900-1990), Hisamatsu Shin'ichi (1889-1980), Abe Masao (1915-2006), Suzuki Daisetsu (1870-1966), Ueda Shizuteru (1926- ), and others.

One of the central concepts that united the Kyoto School philosophers was absolute nothingness. They all tried to elaborate on Nishida's original idea and to explore its implications for various philosophical problems. However, they also had different interpretations and applications of absolute nothingness. For example, Tanabe Hajime developed his own theory of absolute nothingness as the other-power of absolute mediation. He argued that absolute nothingness is not a static or passive state, but rather a dynamic and active process of self-negation and self-transformation. He also applied his theory to the fields of logic, ethics, religion, history, and politics. He proposed a dialectical logic of species, a philosophy of metanoetics or repentance, a religious worldview of mutual complementarity, a historical philosophy of world history, and a political philosophy of cooperative resistance.

Another example is Nishitani Keiji, who developed his own theory of absolute nothingness as the standpoint of emptiness or sunyata. He argued that absolute nothingness is not a mere abstraction or a metaphysical principle, but rather a concrete and existential reality that can be directly experienced and realized. He also applied his theory to the fields of religion, ethics, culture, and history. He proposed a religious philosophy of Zen Buddhism, a philosophy of nihilism and its overcoming, a cultural philosophy of the standpoint of art, and a historical philosophy of the standpoint of world history.

The Kyoto School philosophers also engaged with various aspects of culture, religion, ethics, and politics. They tried to understand and appreciate the diversity and richness of human cultures and religions, especially those of East Asia. They also tried to address the ethical and political issues and challenges that Japan and the world faced in the 20th century. However, their cultural and political involvement was not without controversy. Some of them were accused of being nationalists, imperialists, fascists, or collaborators during World War II. Some of them were also criticized for being elitist, sexist, or ethnocentric in their views and attitudes. These accusations and criticisms have sparked heated debates among scholars and commentators, both in Japan and abroad.

The Kyoto School has left a lasting legacy for cross-cultural dialogue and understanding. It has been one of the most influential and original movements in modern Japanese thought. It has also contributed to the development and recognition of Japanese philosophy as a distinctive field of inquiry. Moreover, it has opened up new horizons and possibilities for bridging Eastern and Western thought. It has inspired many thinkers and writers from various disciplines and backgrounds to engage in creative and critical dialogue with the Kyoto School philosophy. It has also challenged many assumptions and prejudices that have hindered cross-cultural communication and cooperation.

In conclusion, the Kyoto School is a term used to describe a group of Japanese philosophers who developed original and influential ideas by combining Eastern and Western sources of thought. They were mainly active in the first half of the 20th century and centered around Kyoto University. Their main founder was Kitarō Nishida, who introduced the concept of absolute nothingness as a way of understanding reality beyond the categories of Western logic. The Kyoto School philosophers also engaged with various aspects of culture, religion, ethics, and politics, sometimes with controversial consequences. They have left a lasting legacy for cross-cultural dialogue and understanding.

Beliefs
The Kyoto School is a term used to describe a group of Japanese philosophers who developed original and influential ideas by combining Eastern and Western sources of thought. They were mainly active in the first half of the 20th century and centered around Kyoto University. Their main founder was Kitarō Nishida, who introduced the concept of absolute nothingness as a way of understanding reality beyond the categories of Western logic. The Kyoto School philosophers also engaged with various aspects of culture, religion, ethics, and politics. In this essay, I will explore the main beliefs of the Kyoto School, their sources and influences, and their implications and challenges.

One of the core beliefs of the Kyoto School is that reality is not a fixed or static entity, but rather a dynamic and creative process that transcends the dualistic oppositions of being and non-being, subject and object, self and other, etc. They call this reality absolute nothingness, which is not a negation or an absence of being, but rather a positive and affirmative source of all phenomena. Absolute nothingness is also identical with absolute good or absolute value, which is the goal of human life. The Kyoto School philosophers try to articulate and demonstrate this belief by using various metaphors and concepts, such as "the place of nothingness", "the logic of basho", "the self-identity of absolute contradiction", "the self-aware determination of reality", "the other-power of absolute mediation", "the standpoint of emptiness or sunyata", "the empty-expanse", etc.

Another core belief of the Kyoto School is that human beings are not isolated or autonomous individuals, but rather interrelated and interdependent parts of a larger whole. They call this whole the world or the historical world, which is not a mere collection or aggregation of things, but rather a living and organic unity that evolves and changes over time. Human beings are also not passive or determined by external forces, but rather active and responsible agents who can shape and transform themselves and their world. The Kyoto School philosophers try to articulate and demonstrate this belief by using various metaphors and concepts, such as "the dialectic of species", "the philosophy of metanoetics or repentance", "the religious worldview of mutual complementarity", "the cultural philosophy of the standpoint of art", "the historical philosophy of world history", "the political philosophy of cooperative resistance", etc.

The main sources and influences of the Kyoto School beliefs are both Eastern and Western. On the one hand, they draw on the intellectual and spiritual traditions of East Asia, especially those of Mahayana Buddhism, Zen Buddhism, Shin Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Shintoism, etc. They also appreciate and respect the diversity and richness of other cultures and religions in Asia and beyond. On the other hand, they also learn from and dialogue with various Western philosophical systems, such as German idealism, British empiricism, French positivism, existentialism, phenomenology, hermeneutics, Marxism, etc. They also critically examine and challenge some of the assumptions and prejudices that have hindered cross-cultural communication and cooperation.

The implications and challenges of the Kyoto School beliefs are manifold. On the one hand, they offer a distinctive and original contribution to the development and recognition of Japanese philosophy as a field of inquiry. They also open up new horizons and possibilities for bridging Eastern and Western thought. They inspire many thinkers and writers from various disciplines and backgrounds to engage in creative and critical dialogue with the Kyoto School philosophy. They also challenge many assumptions and prejudices that have hindered cross-cultural communication and cooperation. On the other hand, they also face some difficulties and criticisms. Some of their beliefs are complex and abstract, which make them hard to understand or communicate. Some of their beliefs are also controversial or problematic, especially in relation to their political involvement during World War II. Some of them have been accused of being nationalists, imperialists, fascists, or collaborators. Some of them have also been criticized for being elitist, sexist, or ethnocentric in their views and attitudes.

In conclusion, the Kyoto School is a term used to describe a group of Japanese philosophers who developed original and influential ideas by combining Eastern and Western sources of thought. They were mainly active in the first half of the 20th century and centered around Kyoto University. Their main founder was Kitarō Nishida, who introduced the concept of absolute nothingness as a way of understanding reality beyond the categories of Western logic. The Kyoto School philosophers also engaged with various aspects of culture, religion, ethics, and politics. They have some core beliefs that unite them, but also some differences and debates that enrich them. They have some sources and influences that inspire them, but also some implications and challenges that confront them.

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