Schopenhauerism

Schopenhauerism is a term for the personal philosophy of the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer. Building on the transcendental idealism of Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), Schopenhauer developed an atheistic metaphysical and ethical system that rejected the contemporaneous ideas of German idealism. He was among the first thinkers in Western philosophy to share and affirm significant tenets of Indian philosophy, such as Asceticism, denial of the self, and the notion of the world-as-appearance. His work has been described as an exemplary manifestation of philosophical pessimism.

Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason
Schopenhauer proposes that the principle of sufficient reason can be classified into four distinct categories or "roots," each corresponding to a different aspect of experience. These four roots are as follows:


 * 1) Becoming: The class of becoming arises with the combination of time and space, enabling perceptual actuality to become accessible to a subject. This allows for the interpretation of ideas and serves as the foundation for judgments based on causality. The law of causality, considered subjectively, is intellectual and a priori, forming the basis for inferences of cause and effect. It is through this aspect that the natural sciences operate, expanding upon the principles derived from causal relationships.
 * 2) Knowing: This class encompasses all judgments and abstract concepts known to a subject through conceptual and discursive reasoning. It comprises fixed representations derived from the other three classes of objects. Concepts within this class possess truth-value by referring to something external to the concept itself. They are rooted in intuitions of time, space, and the perception of causality, allowing for language and the possibility of various sciences.
 * 3) Being: The class of being involves the separate grounds of time and space. Time and space are a priori forms that provide a subject with an inner, temporal sense and an outer, spatial sense. These forms, constituting pure sensibility, make sensations possible for a subject. Time, being one-dimensional and successive, determines each moment in relation to the following moment. On the other hand, space determines positions in relation to other positions within a closed system. These intuitions of time and space form the basis for arithmetical and geometrical judgments, which hold validity in both theoretical and experiential domains.
 * 4) Willing: The class of willing pertains to a subject's direct knowledge of themselves as a volitional agent. A subject becomes aware of their acts of will (efferent actions) only after they occur, in the realm of time. Willing is grounded in the law of motivation, which is causality perceived from within (afferent perception). A subject not only knows their body as an object of outer sense but also possesses self-consciousness and perceives their body as an idea of perception in an inner sense. The motives that arise from intuitions, perceptions, or abstract conceptions determine a subject's actions in accordance with their character or will. The human sciences find their foundation in this aspect of the principle.
 * 1) Being: The class of being involves the separate grounds of time and space. Time and space are a priori forms that provide a subject with an inner, temporal sense and an outer, spatial sense. These forms, constituting pure sensibility, make sensations possible for a subject. Time, being one-dimensional and successive, determines each moment in relation to the following moment. On the other hand, space determines positions in relation to other positions within a closed system. These intuitions of time and space form the basis for arithmetical and geometrical judgments, which hold validity in both theoretical and experiential domains.
 * 2) Willing: The class of willing pertains to a subject's direct knowledge of themselves as a volitional agent. A subject becomes aware of their acts of will (efferent actions) only after they occur, in the realm of time. Willing is grounded in the law of motivation, which is causality perceived from within (afferent perception). A subject not only knows their body as an object of outer sense but also possesses self-consciousness and perceives their body as an idea of perception in an inner sense. The motives that arise from intuitions, perceptions, or abstract conceptions determine a subject's actions in accordance with their character or will. The human sciences find their foundation in this aspect of the principle.
 * 1) Willing: The class of willing pertains to a subject's direct knowledge of themselves as a volitional agent. A subject becomes aware of their acts of will (efferent actions) only after they occur, in the realm of time. Willing is grounded in the law of motivation, which is causality perceived from within (afferent perception). A subject not only knows their body as an object of outer sense but also possesses self-consciousness and perceives their body as an idea of perception in an inner sense. The motives that arise from intuitions, perceptions, or abstract conceptions determine a subject's actions in accordance with their character or will. The human sciences find their foundation in this aspect of the principle.

World as Representation
Schopenhauer's central proposition, "The world is my representation," encapsulates the core idea of his philosophy. This proposition reflects his Kantian epistemology, which posits that our knowledge of the world is based on our subjective representations.

According to Schopenhauer, the principle of sufficient reason plays a crucial role in providing adequate explanations for the objects or things that we encounter in relation to our subjective knowing. For every representation, there is always a possibility of questioning why it is the way it is. This principle seeks to uncover the reasons or grounds behind the existence, nature, and relations of these representations. By asserting that the world is a representation, Schopenhauer emphasizes the subjective aspect of our experience and suggests that reality is mediated through our mental constructs. This perspective aligns with his overall philosophy, which emphasizes the primacy of the will as the fundamental driving force behind human actions and desires.

Will as Thing-In-Itself
Schopenhauer posited that the will is the fundamental and universal force underlying all phenomena. It is an irrational, blind, and ceaseless striving that drives all beings and objects in the world. The will is not merely a psychological impulse or desire, but rather an ontological force that manifests itself in various forms. Schopenhauer argues that human beings are not only subject to the will, but they also possess self-consciousness, which allows them to reflect on their own desires and actions. This self-consciousness enables humans to recognize the will in themselves and in others, and it is through this recognition that they gain insight into the nature of reality. The will is the essence that lies behind the appearance of the phenomenal world. The objects and events we perceive are merely the external manifestations of the underlying will. Schopenhauer compared the world of appearances to a dream or a theatrical performance, where the individual objects and events are like the actors on a stage, while the will is the director behind the scenes, shaping and driving the action.

Schopenhauer's Aesthetics
According to Schopenhauer, aesthetic experience can be categorized into two main varieties: The Beautiful and The Sublime.

The Beautiful is characterized by a loss of self-consciousness and a tranquil, will-less pleasure. It involves perceiving objects that meet the state of aesthetic contemplation halfway, becoming representatives of their Ideas through their clear and intricate forms. However, objects can be resistant to aesthetic contemplation if they are stimulating to bodily appetites or hostile to the human will to life.

The Sublime, accordingly, refers to contemplation-resistant objects or phenomena that threaten to overwhelm the individual or diminish their existence. It can be experienced in the face of vast or powerful phenomena, such as desert landscapes or the starry night sky. The sublime is further divided into two types: the dynamical and the mathematical. The dynamical sublime refers to physical threats, while the mathematical sublime refers to psychological threats. Aesthetic contemplation of the sublime involves acknowledging the fearsomeness or vastness of the object and consciously turning away from the threat. The experience of the sublime is characterized by moments of self-consciousness and a mixed feeling of pleasure and pain.

Both nature and art can elicit aesthetic experiences. Schopenhauer believes that nearly all human beings are capable of aesthetic experience, although it is enjoyed to a greater extent by geniuses. There are two necessary conditions for a proper aesthetic experience: a subjective side and an objective side.

Subjective Experience
The subjective side of aesthetic experience involves achieving a state of will-less perception. In this state, the individual's intellect ceases to view things in a relational way and stops considering the "where, when, why, and wherefore" of objects. Instead, the focus is solely on the "what" of the objects, perceiving them in their essential nature, independent of their relationship to one's own desires and strivings. Schopenhauer refers to the subject who experiences aesthetic pleasure as the "pure subject of cognition," whose intellect is temporarily free from serving the individual will.

Objective Experience
On the other hand, the objective side of aesthetic experience is the perception of what Schopenhauer calls the "Platonic Ideas." These Ideas are the enduring and essential aspects of objects, and they can only be intuited through aesthetic experience of nature and art. The ontological status and coherence of these Ideas within Schopenhauer's metaphysics have been a topic of debate among scholars.

Morality and Asceticism
For Schopenhauer, morality and asceticism are closely related. Morality, based on compassion, provides a framework for ethical action and encourages individuals to act in ways that alleviate suffering and recognize the fundamental unity of all beings. Asceticism, on the other hand, offers a practical path to overcome the incessant desires and attachments of the will, leading to a state of liberation and inner peace.

Schopenhauer's understanding of morality is rooted in his idea of compassion, which he considers the fundamental basis of ethics. He emphasizes the importance of recognizing the inherent unity of all beings and treating others with kindness, empathy, and compassion. Schopenhauer argues that true moral action arises from a deep recognition of the suffering that pervades existence. By extending compassion to others and acting in ways that alleviate suffering, individuals can transcend their egoistic desires and align themselves with the underlying unity of all beings. In his philosophy, the will is the driving force behind these desires, constantly pushing individuals towards seeking pleasure and avoiding pain. However, Schopenhauer suggests that true fulfillment and liberation lie in transcending the egoistic desires of the will.

By practicing self-denial and renouncing attachments to material possessions, wealth, and fame, individuals can redirect their focus towards moral action and inner growth. Ascetic practices, such as self-discipline, self-control, and renunciation of worldly desires, are seen by Schopenhauer as means to attain a state of inner peace and freedom. By restraining the egoistic desires of the will, individuals can detach themselves from the constant striving and restless pursuit of satisfaction. This detachment enables them to find contentment and tranquility beyond the realm of fleeting desires and pleasures.

Friends

 * [[File:Misanthropy.png]] Misanthropy - "Human life must be some kind of mistake. The truth of this will be sufficiently obvious if we only remember that man is a compound of needs and necessities hard to satisfy; and that even when they are satisfied, all he obtains is a state of painlessness, where nothing remains to him but abandonment to boredom."
 * [[File:Bud_icon.png]] Buddhism - I named my dog after your founder.
 * [[File:Kant.png]] Kantianism - The greatest of philosophers. Although you have some flaws.
 * [[File:Utility.png]] Utilitarianism - “Compassion is the basis of morality.”
 * [[File:Psychoanalysis.png]] Psychoanalysis - "Man can do what he wills but he cannot will what he wills."

Enemies

 * [[File:HegelianPhilosophy.png]] Hegelianism - Damn you charlatan! How are you more popular than me!
 * [[File:Nation.png]] - "The cheapest form of pride however is national pride. For it betrays in the one thus afflicted the lack of individual qualities of which he could be proud, while he would not otherwise reach for what he shares with so many millions."
 * [[File:Optimism.png]] Optimism - “Optimism is not only a false but also a pernicious doctrine, for it presents life as a desirable state and man's happiness as its aim and object. Starting from this, everyone then believes he has the most legitimate claim to happiness and enjoyment. If, as usually happens, these do not fall to his lot, he believes that he suffers an injustice, in fact that he misses the whole point of his existence.”

[[file:Wikipedia.png]] Wikipedia

 * Arthur Schopenhauer