Structural Marxism is a branch of Marxist philosophy associated with Louis Althusser and his followers. It gained traction in France during the 1960s and 1970s and influenced thinkers globally. Althusser emphasized Marxism as a scientific analysis of objective structures, contrasting it with earlier, more ideological forms. In the 1970s and 1980s, structural Marxists analyzed the state, law, and crime through a structuralist lens. Unlike instrumental Marxists who see the state serving the capitalist class directly, structuralists argue that state institutions uphold capitalism as a whole. This led to debates, notably the Miliband–Poulantzas debate, between instrumentalists like Ralph Miliband and structuralists like Nicos Poulantzas. Structuralists see the state's function not determined by specific elites but by the logic of capitalist structure ingrained in its institutions. Thus, they argue that state institutions serve the long-term interests of capital and capitalism, rather than the short-term interests of individual capitalists.
Beliefs[edit | edit source]
Epistemological Break[edit | edit source]
Althusser says people have misunderstood Marx. He thinks Marx's ideas are revolutionary, especially his view on how society changes. Althusser believes Marx's work has a big change in thinking, especially in "The German Ideology". He thinks Marx didn't fully get how important his own ideas were. Althusser's job is to help people understand how cool Marx's ideas are, even the stuff he didn't directly say.
Althusser says Marx's work is different from other stuff before because it rejects the idea of a clear separation between what we know and what's out there. Instead of saying we just see things as they are, Marx says we make knowledge through thinking. Althusser calls this "theoretical practice". He thinks Marx's ideas are like making something new out of old stuff.
Althusser also says Marx has ideas that don't match with older ways of thinking, like in economics. Marx's ideas about how societies work are different because they look at the whole picture, not just individual needs. He says Marx's ideas are powerful because they explain how everything fits together in society, not just money stuff.
Even though Althusser talks about a big change in Marx's thinking, he also says it's not so clear when it happened. He thinks Marx's later writings still have some old ideas mixed in. He says Marx's ideas are always fighting against old ways of thinking. So, even though Marx had a big change in his thinking, it's not like everything suddenly became different.
Practices[edit | edit source]
Althusser says Marx believed people are shaped by society, so it's not useful to base social theories on ideas about individuals. Instead of focusing on individuals, Marx looked at how society is structured. He saw society as made up of fixed "practices" rather than just individual actions. People are not the ones making history, but they support these practices.
Althusser defends Marx's ideas against the criticism that they oversimplify society by focusing too much on the economy. He argues that Marx didn't see society as just built on an economic base with culture and politics on top. Instead, Althusser says Marx saw these parts of society as connected and influencing each other. Economic practices, for example, involve many different things like resources, tools, and people working together.
Althusser sees society as made up of different "practices" like economics, ideology, and politics, which are all connected. Even though each practice has its own importance, they all depend on each other. For example, the economy can't function without laws and political systems to support it, and vice versa. So, for Althusser, understanding society means seeing how all these parts work together.
Contradiction and Overdetermination[edit | edit source]
Althusser explains how society works and changes through interconnected practices. He uses Lenin's analysis of the Russian Revolution to show that social change is more than just one contradiction. Instead, it involves many contradictions within a social system. These contradictions interact in complex ways, leading to unexpected changes. Althusser calls this "overdetermination." Economic practice, like capitalism, is the main driver of these changes and dominates other aspects of society. Unlike Hegel, who sees history as driven by a single essence, Althusser believes each society is made up of many interconnected parts without a single central point.
Ideological States Appartuses[edit | edit source]
Althusser believed that who we are—our desires, choices, and beliefs—are shaped by society's practices. In capitalist societies, people see themselves as independent individuals with thoughts and responsibilities, but Althusser says this idea is learned, not innate. Society teaches us our roles and limits through things like work and family. Our values and beliefs come from what Althusser calls "ideological practice," like family, media, and education. Even though ideologies change, their function stays the same: to make us see ourselves as subjects with specific roles. Althusser explains this with the idea of "hailing," like when a policeman calls out to someone on the street. When we respond, we're accepting our role as a subject, even if we don't realize it. Althusser says we can't see ourselves outside of ideology; it shapes how we act and see the world. This idea is similar to Lacan's Mirror Stage, where people form their identities by seeing themselves reflected in society's beliefs and practices.
Aleatory Materialism[edit | edit source]
In some papers written between 1982 and 1986, Althusser criticizes how Marxism is connected to dialectical materialism and materialist philosophy in general. Instead, he introduces a new idea called the Philosophy of the Encounter, later called Aleatory Materialism. Althusser believes that thinkers like Marx, Democritus, Epicurus, and others already hinted at this idea. He argues against the idea that history follows strict laws like physics, saying that history is more about chance events than predetermined rules. Instead of focusing on general laws, Althusser says we should look at specific historical moments, called conjunctures, where political action can make a difference. Aleatory Materialism is about understanding these moments in history from a materialist perspective.
Variants[edit | edit source]
Badiouianism[edit | edit source]
Badiouianism is a philosophical ideology of Alain Badiou. It revolves around a unique blend of mathematical ontology, radical political thought, and an ethics centered on the fidelity to truth. Badiou rejects traditional metaphysical categories and asserts that reality is inherently mathematical, with multiplicities forming the basis of existence. Central to his philosophy is the concept of the "event," a disruptive occurrence that leads to transformative possibilities. Badiou argues for active political engagement, aligning with communism as a pathway to collective emancipation. His ethics demand a commitment to universal truths, challenging relativism, and urging individuals to actively participate in truth-procedures. Badiou's influence extends to various fields, sparking debates on ontology, ethics, and politics.
Central to Badiouianism is the idea of mathematical ontology. Badiou draws on set theory and mathematics to develop an ontology that transcends traditional metaphysical categories. He argues that being is mathematical and that the essence of reality can be understood through the structure of mathematical sets.
Badiou conceives reality as multiple, consisting of an infinite number of multiplicities. Each multiplicity is a set with its own internal structure and logic. The concept of multiplicity challenges traditional notions of identity and substance.
Badiou introduces the concept of the "event" as a rupture or discontinuity in the normal course of things. Events are unpredictable, exceptional occurrences that disrupt the existing order. They have the potential to introduce new possibilities and truths.
Following an event, individuals or subjects engage in a truth-procedure, a process of faithful commitment to the consequences of the event. Truth, for Badiou, is not correspondence with reality but rather the fidelity to the consequences of an event.
Badiou defines the subject as the one who is faithful to a truth. The subject emerges through the process of a truth-procedure and is characterized by its fidelity to the event. The subject, as a bearer of universal truths, transcends particularities.
Badiou argues for the inexistence of the subject, asserting that the subject is a void or void-presence. The subject is not reducible to empirical identity but emerges through its commitment to a truth.
Badiou is associated with a radical political stance, often identified with the idea of communism. He argues for the potential of politics to break with established norms and create new possibilities. Communism, in Badiou's terms, is an idea of equality and collective emancipation.
Badiou emphasizes the role of political events in creating transformative moments. Politics, for him, involves fidelity to an event and the construction of a new political subjectivity.
Badiouian ethics is centered around fidelity to truths and events. It involves the commitment to universal principles and the rejection of relativism. Ethics, for Badiou, emerges from the subject's fidelity to a truth and the consequences of an event.
Badiou argues for a form of ethics that involves active engagement and militancy. The ethical subject is one who acts in accordance with universal principles and strives to bring about transformative change.
Badiou criticizes postmodern relativism and the rejection of grand narratives. He contends that a commitment to universal truths is essential for ethical and political engagement.
In contrast to postmodern trends, Badiou's work represents a return to metaphysical questions, exploring the nature of being, truth, and subjectivity.
Badiou engages with aesthetics, particularly the relationship between art and truth. He argues that art has the potential to reveal universal truths and contribute to the formation of subjectivity.
Badiou proposes an "invariant" theory of aesthetics, suggesting that certain artistic features persist across different historical and cultural contexts. This challenges relativistic views of aesthetics.
Further Information[edit | edit source]
Wikipedia[edit | edit source]
Theoreticians[edit | edit source]
References[edit | edit source]
 Marxist philosophy - Workers of the world, unite!  | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Classical Marxism | |||||
 Orthodox Marxism | Major
| ||||
 Unorthodox Marxism | |||||
 Left Communism | |||||
 Capitalist | |||||
